Week 9's Readings

Problem Solving

The ability to combine previously learned principles,procedures,declarative knowledge & cognitive strategies in a unique way within a domain of content to solve previously unencountered problem

It is different from principle learning as the former requires the selection & combination of multiple principles in order to solve a problem,rather than a single principle.

Therefore,for a learning goal to be regarded as problem solving,it must involve almost simultaneous consideration of principles & procedures within a domain,the careful selection of the principles that are applicable,and the sequencing of the application of the principles so that a problem is solved.

To solve a problem within a domain,one must possess principles,declarative knowledge & cognitive strategies, with application of principles being the most critical component.

This is consistent with heuristic problem solving where no clear procedural rule exists.

Well structured (or well-defined)problems

Problem for which the existing state and desired state are clearly identified, and the method(s) to reach the desired state are obvious

E.g. converting kilograms to grams

Ill structured (or ill-structured)problems

Situation in which its existing state and the desired state are unclear and, hence, methods of reaching the desired state cannot be found.Appropriateness of solutions vary according to the rationale for solution.

E.g. Determining what really happened during the Great Siberian Explosion in 1908

Cognitive Requirements for Problem Solving Learning

(1) Problem Representation

Define & decompose the problem into sub-problems.

For well defined problems, definition involves the identification of apprioprate problem schema - superordinate productions in the if-then form,
with 'if' representing the salient conditions for a particular class of problems(together with related declarative knowledge & principles),
and the 'then' representing the cognitive strategies & principles to support the solution of the problem.

Decomposition of the problem into subproblems can be similiarly straightforward for well defined problems as such problems have corresponding subproblems.

For ill-defined problems, definition inovles skilled strategy to determine what the problem actually is.This is difficult as ill defined problems have

multiple perspectives that represent the problem in a different way,
it requires multiple domains to articulate the problem,
that no actual problem exists in the way it is being presented as one.

To clarify ill structured problems, learners need to identify alternative perspectives of individuals affected by & affecting the solution,and also clarify what is known, what can be found out, and whatm ust remain unknown.Factors other than lack of knowledge that constraint possible solutions ought to be identified.

Solution Planning

It requires searching,selecting,combining,and sequencing relevant knowledge.

Means end strategy:jumping back & forth between desired end and current state,identifying intermediate states & the principles to convert each other to the next intermediate state.

Difference-reduction strategy:attempts to select principles to enact upon the current state to get it to look more & more like the desired state.

Working-back-wards strategy:starts with the desired end state & then selects and applies the principles that will backup to the intermediate state just before the desired state.move on to the next-to-last step & so forth until intermediate stage is reached.

Solution Implementation

To be able to apply multiple pirnciples,one must know the principles,know where to apply to what situation and confirm they have been applied appropriately.

Some instructional strategies use simulations or other types of problem-based learning environments for learners to practice problem solving in a domain without giving them prior experience with the principles that must be considered and sequentially applied to solve the problem presented in the simulation.

Disdavantage: This approach has a high cognitive demand as it requires one to acquire domain-specific principles to the application level at the same time that one learns to identify problems that require applications of multiple principles.

Advantage: Provides an immediate relevancy for why such principles must be learnt.

Solution Evaluation

To get a particular solution,one may need to go through multiple iterations between solution implementation and solution evaluation, trying out multiple solutions until one works.

Confirmation for well defined problems is simple as the system itself provides feedback that the problem is solved.

Determining whether a solution is suitable for an ill defined problem may be difficult. Instructors have to come up with some form of guidance for learners to evaluate, whether it is acceptable to involved parties.

Components of Attitude Learning

(1) The cognitive component consisting of 'knowing how'

A prerequisite that is always present in all examples of attitude learning,hence a part of attitude itself

(2) The behavioural component consisting of the need to apply the attitude - to engage in the behaviou

To actually internalize an attitude,one has to do it.

(3) The affective component consisting of 'knowing why'.

The urge & desire.
Fundamental condition for achievement of affective component = role model

Cognitive Component in Attitude Change & Formation

Attitude includes both knowing how to do something & choosing to do it.

(1) Attending

To be aware
To be willinging to receive
Focus on some parts

(2) Responding

Actually take satisfaction in it
Move from acceptance to willingness to respond to take satisfaction in response to the new attitude
Responding level right at the centre of what is generally meant by appreciation

(3) Valuing

Having subcategories
(a) accepting of the value
(b) preference for a value
(c) commitment

(4) Organization

Goes beyond newfound eclecticism & links with other values
Goes beyond what can be accompished in standard instructional design
Have the organized system of beliefs,commitments & preferences that one associates with another in the particular field

Instructional Conditions for Attitude Objectives

(1) Demonstration of desired behaviour by a respected role model

Important for learners to comprehend & see the model demonstrating the behaviour & being reinforced

Four-step proceduer for use of human models in attitude learning
(a) establish appeal & credibility of role model
(b) stimulate recall of relevant knowledge & concepts
(c) demonstration or communication of desired action by the model
(d) demonstration or communication of reinforcement(positive outcomes)as a result of the action taken

(2) Practice of the desired behaviour(role playing)

Learner activity a powerful tool in attitude formation & change
Provides opportunity within an instructional environemnt
Constitutes another means by which modelling can be employed
Conventional group discussion

(3) Provide reinforcement for the desired behaviour

Reinforcer technically defined as a stimulus that increases the probability of the prceding behaviour re-occuring.
In common terms,reinforcers generally thought as rewards,though not ALL rewards are reinforcing
Praise & reward can be worse than no attempt to reinforce at all,in many situations